A CATECHISM 
OF AGRICULTURE 



THOMAS CLARK ATKESON 




Gop)iightN^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




"Lawnvale," the former home of T. C. Atkeson in the Kanawha Valley, Put- 
nam County, West Virginia. 



A CATECHISM 
OF AGRICULTURE 



By 
THOMAS CLARK ATKESON, Ph.D. 

Professor of Animal Husbandry. 
West Virginia Uninjersity 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

LONDON 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited 



1913 



^ 



-J 



Copyright, 1913. by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



Entered at Stationers' Hall 
LONDON. ENGLAND 



Printed in U. S. A. 



©CI.A347097 

9u ^ 



The title to this little volume was 
originally suggested by my wife, 
Cordelia Meek Atkeson, to whom 
it is affectionately dedicated. 

The Author. 



PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION 

This catechism was originally written for a school 
journal by the writer and Prof. D. W. Working, 
in the hope that it would promote accurate knowl- 
edge and clear thinking concerning some of the 
elementary facts and principles of agriculture among 
the school teachers of the state. No effort was made 
to ask and answer all the questions likely to occur 
to teachers, but to include only those that seemed 
to be necessary to make a fairly comprehensive 
treatment of the general field of elementary agri- 
culture. 

As agriculture was just becoming a common- 
school subject, and as very few teachers in the state 
had been taught agriculture, it was necessary to 
make the treatment as simple and direct as possi- 
ble. At the same time, it was necessary to remem- 
ber that many of these teachers were practical 
farmers who would test the questions and answers 
from the standpoint of the best farm experience in 
the state. It was important, also, that the catechism 
be made to harmonize with the best of modern agri- 
cultural knowledge, because it was sure to fall into 
the hands of teachers trained in the best agricul- 
tural schools and colleges in the country. 

After being printed in the school journal, a small 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE 

edition of the catechism was privately printed by 
the authors. This edition was freely distributed 
as long as it lasted ; and in the fall of 1909 the ex- 
tension department of the college of agriculture 
issued a second edition of 2,500 copies. The demand 
for this edition was so great that it was practically 
exhausted by the first of February, 1910. The de- 
mand continuing, it seemed advisable to make a 
third printing; for which purpose the entire pam- 
phlet was carefully revised, question by question 
and answer by answer, with the result that many 
changes and additions were made. Of this third 
edition 5,000 copies were printed and distributed to 
the teachers and farmers of the state. The demand 
has continued to such an extent that it has seemed 
expedient to issue this fourth edition in an enlarged 
and more permanent form. 

Prof. D. W. Working, who was associated 
with me in preparing the earlier editions of this 
catechism for the printer was at that time superin- 
tendent of agricultural extension at West Virginia 
University, but resigned in June, 191 1, to accept a 
position with the farm management investigations. 
United States Department of Agriculture, with head- 
quarters at Denver, Colorado. Pleasant as our 
association was, our lives having drifted apart, he 
has kindly agreed that I may use the product of our 
co-operative work contained in the third edition in 
the preparation of this enlarged and more perma- 



PREFACE IX 

nent fourth edition. Many additions and revisions 
have been made and Section IV, Farm Crop Man- 
agement; Section VI, Dairy Management; and Sec- 
tion VII, Farm Management, are entirely new. 
Illustrations appear in this edition for the first time 
and add much to its attractiveness. Without any 
thought of claiming perfection or completeness for 
this little volume, I venture to express the hope that 
it may be found of value to teachers and country 
school pupils, and to busy farmers generally. 

T. C. ATKESON. 
Morgantown, W. Va., October 15, 1912. 



CONTENTS 



Page 

I. Scope of the Subject i 

Agriculture Defined i 

The Knowledge of Agriculture 2 

Agriculture and Other Sciences 3 

Agricultural Relationships 3 

II. Soil Management 5 

The Soil 5 

Elements and Compounds 9 

Manures and Fertilizers 10 

Soil Water 15 

Tillage 18 

III. Plant Management 21 

Plants . . . .• 21 

Cultivation 26 

Plant Enemies 30 

IV. Farm Crop Management 35 

Farm Crops Classified 35 

Pastures and Meadows 37 

Roots and Tubers 39 

Fiber and Stimulant Crops 41 

Limiting Factors 42 

Crops to Grow 43 

Rotation 45 

xi 



Xll CONTENTS 

Page 

V. Animal Management 47 

Principles of Breeding 47 

Cattle 51 

Horses 53 

Sheep 55 

Swine 57 

Poultry 58 

Feeding : 61 

Animal Judging 66 

Score Card 68 

VI. Dairy Management 71 

Milk 71 

Creamery Problems 73 

VII. Farm Management 82 

Business Methods 82 

Capital 84 

Labor 86 

Implements and Equipment 89 

Choice of a Farm 9c 

Systems of Farming 91 

Farm Accounts 92 

How Education Pays 95 



A Catechism of Agriculture 



I. SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT 
AGRICULTURE DEFINED 

1. What is agriculture? 

No single definition can be framed to include all 
that is implied by the term agriculture ; for agricul- 
ture is an art or trade which one man learns from his 
father and his father's neighbors ; it is a business 
which another man builds up by adapting the gen- 
eral principles of business operations to the manage- 
ment of soil, machinery, plants, animals, and men 
in producing plants and animals and their products 
for sale ; and it is a science or body of related facts 
and principles which a third man so uses that the art 
and the business of farming may profit thereby. 

2. What is the art of agriculture? 

The art of agriculture, or farming, includes the 

tilling of the soil, the raising of farm crops common 

to a particular region, and the rearing, feeding, and 

using of farm animals. 
./ 

3. What is the business of agriculture? 

The business of agriculture, or farming, includes 
the purchase of supplies and equipment, the employ- 
ment and management of men, the planning of the 
farm, and the orderly conduct of its operations, the 
selling of its products, and the keeping of books of 
record and account; agricultural economics. \ 



2 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

4. What is the science of agriculture? 

The science of agriculture, or farming, is the body 
of systematized knowledge and principles which ex- 
plains the processes of soil management, and plant 
and animal production, improvement, and nutrition. 

THE KNOWLEDGE OF AGRICULTURE 

5. Who should know the art of agriculture? 

In order to succeed at all, every man who engages 
in farming or farm management must know at least 
the essentials of the art of agriculture ; he needs to 
have the familiar knowledge and the skill in prac- 
tice which are acquired most readily by the boy who 
grows up on the farm and works with his father and 
brothers. 

6. Who should know the business of agriculture? 

Every farmer who employs men and uses ma- 
chinery must have the business ability that enables 
a man to use the knowledge and the labor of others 
in carrying out his plans. Even the small farmer 
needs to have some business ability, but the man- 
ager of a large farm must be a real business man, 
because he is engaged in buying and using supplies 
and machinery, in employing and managing men, 
and in selling the output of the farm ; he is a dealer 
to a greater degree than he is a worker with his 
hands. 

7. Who should know the science of agriculture? 

In order to give sound instruction, the teacher 
must know at least the elements of the science of 



SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT 3 

agriculture. As this science explains the meaning 
and the movement of water and air in the soil and 
the processes of life in soil, plant, and animal, a 
working knowledge of its most important facts and 
principles is of great advantage to every person who 
works with soils, plants, or animals. 

AGRICULTURE AND OTHER SCIENCES 

8. How does agriculture differ from geology, phys- 

ics, and chemistry? 

Agriculture takes the results of the investigations 
of these sciences and applies them in the manage- 
ment of the soil for the purpose of producing plants. 

9. How does agriculture differ from botany and 

bacteriology? 
It takes the results of the investigations of these 
sciences and applies them in the management of 
plants and of plant and animal products. 

10. How does agriculture differ from zoology, 

physiology, and entomology? 

It takes the results of the investigations of these 
sciences and applies them in the breeding and man- 
agement of animals and in the protection of plants 
and animals against diseases and injurious insects. 

AGRICULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS 

11. What is the relation of plants and animals to 

the soil? 

A considerable part of every productive soil is 
composed of the remains of plants and animals and 



4 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

owes its condition of fertility largely to the work of 
plants and animals. Few, if any, of the higher plants 
can grow in a soil that lacks vegetable or animal 
matter. 

12. What is the relation of the soil to living plants? 

Most plants grow out of the soil which supports 
them in place and furnishes them an important part 
of the food that sustains them. Without this sup- 
port and sustenance plants could not grow. 

13. What is the relation of plants to animals? 

All of the higher animals live on plants and plant 
products or on other animals that are mainly or en- 
tirely sustained by vegetable matter. Plants can 
draw their food supplies from the soil and the air, 
but animals cannot. 



II. SOIL MANAGEMENT 
THE SOIL 

14. What is the soil? 

The soil is the surface layer of the earth down to 
solid rock. Usually we think of the soil as being 
the few inches of earth reached by the plow. 

15. What name is given to the layer of earth just 

below the part reached by the plow? 

It is called the subsoil. 

16. How does the subsoil differ from the surface 

soil? 

It contains less vegetable matter, and is therefore 
lighter in color; also, it is generally firmer in texture 
and less open to air and water. 

17. How was the soil formed? 

By the dissolving and grinding power of water 
and the crumbling effect of heat and cold, the orig- 
inal rock-surface of the earth was broken up. Later, 
the work of burrowing animals, insects, and earth- 
worms and the growth of plant roots, providing for 
the freer entrance of air and water, continued the 
breaking-up process; and the death and decay of 
these living things added to the soil the matter 
called humus. The work of bacteria (living things 
too small to be seen without a microscope) also 
helped to change the rock-fragments into more pro- 
ductive soil. 



6 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

i8. How are soils classified? 

According to their principal constituents, such as 
sand, clay, loam or humus. 

19. What is a sandy soil? 

A sandy soil is one composed in large part of sand. 
This sand may be coarse or fine and mixed with 
gravel : and always it contains a certain amount of 
material finer than sand, as silt and clay and fine 
vegetable mold. 

20. What is a clay soil? 

A clay soil is one composed in large part of the 
fine, sticky, plastic material known as clay. It 
may contain a consideral)le portion of gravel, sand, 
and humus. 

21. What is a loam or humus soil? 

A loam or humus soil is one containing a large 
percentage of decaying vegetable and animal matter 
mixed with fine sand and clay, which form the bulk 
of the soil. 

22. What is a fertile soil? 

Any soil that is in condition to produce good crops 
with ordinary tillage. All fertile soils contain vege- 
table and animal matter in a partly decayed condi- 
tion in addition to the necessary chemical elements. 

23. Upon what does the fertility of the soil depend? 

Plainly upon its mechanical condition, the availa- 
bility of its plant-food elements, and the presence 
and activity of germ or bacterial life. 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 



24. What is meant by the mechanical condition of 
the soil? 

The mechanical condition of a soil is its physical 
state, or the character indicated by what farmers 
describe as hard, heavy, light, stiff, mellow, warm, cold, 
damp, wet, peaty, clayey, sandy, or loamy. We 
ordinarily judge the mechanical condition of a soil 
by its looks, its "feel" in the hand or under foot, 
and the way it is affected by tillage implements. 




Fall plowing on an up-to-date grain farm. 

25. What is availability? 

Plant food is said to be available when it is dis- 
solved or soluble in the soil-water, in which condi- 
tion only can it be taken up by plant roots. 

26. What is meant by the chemical composition of 

the soil? 

The chemical composition of a soil is its make-up 



8 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

with regard to the numerous mineral and other ele- 
ments of which it is composed, only a few of which 
are necessary to plant growth. 

27. What are the bacterial properties of the soil? 

All cultivated soils are teeming with bacteria, 
whose agricultural function it is to aid in supplying 
plants with necessary food. Without these bacteria 
no higher plants can grow. 

28. How may the mechanical condition of the soil 

be improved? 

By all of the operations of cultivation ; by drain- 
age and irrigation ; by the addition of decaying vege- 
table matter ; by adding sand to clay and clay to 
sand ; and by the application of lime, which makes 
a clay soil more open and a sandy soil more com- 
pact. 

29. How may the availability of the plant food of 

the soil be increased? 

By the improvement of the mechanical condition 
of the soil, the rotation of crops, and the use of cover 
crops, all of which promote chemical action result- 
ing in the breaking down of insoluble soil com- 
pounds. 

30. What is rotation of crops 

By rotation is meant the systematic succession of 
crops through a definite series of years — as the 
growing of corn followed by oats, wheat, and clover 
with timothy for the last two years of a five-year 
period. 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 9 

31. What is a cover crop? 

A cover crop is one grown between regular crops 
for the purpose of protecting the land against wash- 
ing and to add humus to the soil — as by the sowing 
of rye or cowpeas in the late summer or early fall 
to be plowed under in the spring. 

32. How may the germ life in the soil be stim- 

ulated? 

By the addition of decaying vegetable and animal 




A successful lime distributor in operation. 

matter, by the use of lime, by drainage, and by thor- 
ough tillage. 

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 

33. What is an element? 

An element is a simple substance, such as iron or 
gold, or the oxygen or nitrogen of the air. 

34. What are the essential plant-food elements? 

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, 



10 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

potassium, calcium, sulphur, iron, and magnesium. 

35. How are these elements supplied to the plant? 

The first in the form of the carbonic acid gas 
(carbon dioxide) which is mingled with the air; 
the others in the form of compounds dissolved in 
the soil-water. 

36. What is a chemical compound? 

A compound is a substance composed of two or 
inore elements chemically combined. 

37. Are soils likely to be lacking in any of the 

plant-food elements? 

Many soils are or may become deficient in avail- 
able nitrogen, potassium, or phosphorus. 

38. How may this lack be supplied? 

By the use of manure or fertilizer and by grow- 
ing leguminous crops. 

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS 

39. What is a manure or fertilizer? 

Any substance which may supply the soil with 
available plant food, especially nitrogen, potassium, 
or phosphorus. 

40. What is a commercial fertilizer? 

A fertilizing material which is bought and sold 
on the market. 

41. What is a complete fertilizer? 

Any fertilizing substance which contains avail- 
able nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. 



SOIL MANAGEISIENT II 

42. By what names are these fertilizing elements 

commercially known? 

Nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 

43. How may the purchaser of a commercial fer- 

tilizer know that he is getting what he buys? 

By examining the tag attached to each package. 
This tag, under the laws of nearly all of the states, 
must guarantee the amount of nitrogen, potash, and 
phosphoric acid which the fertilizer contains ; and 
the manufacturer may be heavily fined for selling 
an article containing less than the guaranteed per- 
centage of any fertilizing element. 

44. What information does the tag give? 

The tag guarantees the percentage (pounds per 
hundred) of nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus con- 
tained by the fertilizer. 

45. How may a purchaser know the market value 

of a commercial fertilizer? 

The prices of nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus 
vary a little from year to year; but usually nitrogen 
costs less than twenty cents a pound, and potash and 
phosphorus each less than five cents. Therefore, 
if the per cent of nitrogen be multiplied by 20 and 
the per cent of potash and phosphorus be multiplied 
by 5, the sum of the results will be about the value 
in cents of a hundred pounds of the fertilizer. Thus, 
if a fertilizer contains two per cent of nitrogen, four 
per cent of potash, and ten per cent of phosphoric 
acid, its approximate value can be found as follows : 



12 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



2 X 


20 40 


4 X 


5 — 20 


10 X 


5 — 50 



no 



The result (no) is cents per hundred pounds, or 
$1.10. This amount multiplied by 20 (the number 
of hundredweight per ton) gives the value of a ton 
of fertilizer of the proportions indicated. 




Hauling out manure to save the land. 



46. Is there a difference between the commercial 
value and the agricultural value of a fer- 
tilizer? 
There is. The commercial value of a fertilizer is 
what it will bring in the market ; while the agricul- 
tural value is determined by the increase of yield 
due to its use. Under some conditions the agricul- 
tural value may be greater than the market price; 
under other conditions it mav be much less, depend- 



SOIL MAXAGEj\[EXT I3 

ing upon the character and condition of the soil, 
upon the season, and upon the crop grown ; also, and 
mainly, upon the knowledge, skill, and judgment of 
the farmer. 

47. What is farm manure? 

Decaying vegetable and animal matter, such as 
accumulates about stables, farmyards, and fields ; 
especially the wastes of animals, including the litter 
used in bedding them. 

48. What plant-food elements does farm manure 

contain? 

As manure is decaying vegetable and animal mat- 
ter, it contains all of the elements which contribute 
to plant growth. 

49. To what losses is farm manure liable? 

To the loss of nitrogen through heating, and the 
loss of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid as a 
result of leaching, or washing out. 

50. How great may this loss be? 

Under ordinary conditions of neglect, it may 
amount in six months to from one-half to three- 
fourths of the total value. 

51. How may this loss be prevented? 

By taking the manure direct from the barn and 
spreading it on the fields, or by storing it so as to 
prevent heating and leaching. 

52. How may the heating of manure be prevented? 

As heating results from too rapid decay, it may 



14 



A CATECHISM OF A(;R [CULTURE 



be prevented by keeping the manure well packed 
and thoroughly wet, which excludes the air. 

53. How may the leaching of manure be prevented? 

By storing it under roof in a pit or cellar with 
cement or other water-tight floor and walls. 

54. How should farm manure be applied to plow 

land? 

On open sandy soil, it should be spread on the sur- 
face after plowing; on heavy clay soil it should be 
spread on the land and plowed under. 




A heavy hay crop and a group of happy haymakers. 



55. How should farm manure be applied to grass 
lands? 

On meadows, it may be applied -with a manure- 
spreader or otherwise from midsummer till the fol- 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 1 5 

lowing spring; on pastures, from late fall till late 
winter, most heavily near the hilltops. 

56. In addition to supplying plant food, how does 

farm manure improve the soil? 

It increases its power to absorb and retain mois- 
ture; it acts as an indirect fertilizer, making avail- 
able the potash, phosphoric acid, and other mineral 
plant foods ; it encourages the growth of certain 
helpful bacteria ; and it aids in regulating the tem- 
perature of the soil. 

SOIL WATER 

57. Why is water needed in the soil? 

To dissolve the plant food ; for plants can take 
up their food from the soil only when it is in solu- 
tion in water. 

58. How much water do plants require? 

About sixty gallons of water for the production 
of a pound of dry'matter; or, about 200,000 gallons 
of water to produce an acre of corn yielding fifty 
bushels. Some crops require more, some less. 

59. How many kinds of water are found in the soil? 

Three — free, capillary, and hygroscopic. 

60. What is meant by free water ? 

The water that stands on or in the soil or passes 
freely through it ; such water as may be removed by 
drainage. 

61. What is capillary water? 

The water that cannot be drained out of the soil, 



i6 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



but which moves readily in any direction toward the 
driest places in obedience to what is called the law 
of capillary attraction; it is the water that supplies 
the plant roots with nourishment. 

62. What is hygroscopic water? 

The film of water held so firmly by particles of 
air-dry soil that the root-hairs cannot absorb it. 




Irrigation water on the plants. 

63. How may the water-holding capacity of the 
soil be increased? 

By deep plowing and the addition of vege- 
table matter. The general character of the soil in- 
fluences this capacity; but drainage and tillage are 
very important. Whatever gives the soil a sponge- 
like quality increases its water-holding capacity. 



SOIL MANAGEMENT 1 7 

64. What is irrigation? 

Irrigation is the application of water to cuhivated 
land by some artificial means. 

65. When and where is irrigation necessary? 

In arid and semi-arid regions and in all sections 
of the country during drouth seasons. 

66. What methods of irrigation are generally used? 
During drouth seasons in the rainy sections vari- 
ous kinds of sprinklers are used by gardeners and 
others for watering their plants. In large sections 
of the United States west of the hundredth merid- 
ian, when the rainfall is insufficient, extensive irri- 
gation plants have been put in by the government 
and private capitalists, damming up the rivers which 
are fed by melting snows on the mountain tops, and 
the water conveyed over the land through a system 
of ditches. 

67. What is the character of the land in the dry 

sections? 

Usually very fertile and productive when water 
is brought to it in sufficient quantit3^ 

68. What is soil drainage? 

When land is swampy or too wet for agricultural 
purposes, when ditched or drained by artificial 
means it is called drainage. 

69. How many kinds of drainage are there? 

Two — surface drainage, as it is called, by means 
of open ditches, and under drainage, when some un- 
derground system is used. 



i8 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



70. What kind of drainage is best? 

For permanent results, some form of under drain- 
age. All things considered, earthen tile, laid at least 
three feet deep on proper grades, is best and most 
economical. 

TILLAGE 

71. What is tillage? 

The stirring and pulverizing of the soil for the 
purpose of increasing the growth of plants. 




Getting ready to sow oats on corn land. 



72, How many kinds of tillage are there? 

Two — the tillage that stirs the whole surface of 
the soil, and the tillage among the growing plants, 
or inter-tillage. Deep tillage extends to a depth of 
6 or more inches; shallow tillage to a depth of less 
than 4 inches. 



SOIL MANAGEMENT I9 

73. What is the effect of tillage? 

It increases the water-holding capacity of the soil, 
conserves the water-supply, lets in air, aids in mak- 
ing plant food available, increases the root-feeding 
area, warms the soil, destroys weeds, and in other 
ways facilitates plant growth. 

74. How is tillage performed? 

The plow, harrow, and roller are the standard till- 
age implements, and are used for turning, pulver- 
izing, and compacting the soil. Many special imple- 
ments are used for each of these operations. 

75. How is inter-tillage performed? 

By the use of a large variety of tillage implements. 
In corn for example, it was common, years ago, to 
use small turning-plows. Later, one and two-horse 
shovel-plows came into use. At present, two-horse 
cultivators are in common use. These have from 
two to five or six narrow shovels or teeth in each 
gang. Harrows and weeders are also used. 

76. How deep should corn ground be stirred by 

the cultivator? 

When the corn is small, the cultivator may be 
allowed to stir the soil to a considerable depth. 
After the roots have partially occupied the surface 
soil between the rows, the cultivator teeth should 
not be allowed to go deeper than two inches, or 
the roots will be severely injured. The same rule 
applies to other tilled crops. 

77. In addition to destroying weeds, what are the 

important effects of cultivation? 

It makes the soil more open to air and to water 



20 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

that falls as rain and hinders the evaporation of 
soil-water by forming what is called a dust mulch. 

78. When is deep plowing best? 

Deep plowing is best when the soil is underlain 
by what is known as "hard-pan" or by a hard clay. 
When the soil is deepened, it should be done by 
plowing about an inch deeper each year. 

79. What is subsoiling? 

Under some conditions it is advantageous to 
break up and loosen the subsoil in the bottom of 
the furrow made by the common plow without 
throwing the subsoil to the surface. This operation 
is called subsoiling, and for it a special kind of plow 
is used called a subsoil plow, which is drawn by 
another team following the surface plow. 

80. When is shallow plowing best? 

Shallow plowing is best when the humus is lim- 
ited and lies at or near the surface ; also when the 
soil is sandy with a porous or sandy subsoil. 



III. PLANT MANAGEMENT 
PLANTS 

8i. What are plants? 

Excluding the lower and parasitic forms, plants 
are living organisms having the power to appro- 
priate their nourishment from water, from plant 
food dissolved in water, and from the carbon diox- 
ide in the air; usually consist of three distinct 
parts — roots, stem, and leaves — and are without the 
power of moving from place to place. 

82. What are roots? 

The part of a plant which extends from the stem 
into the earth. 

83. How do roots distribute themselves in the soil? 

Equally in all directions if the soil is uniform in 
condition and fet-tility. When the soil lacks uni- 
formity, the roots grow in the direction of the most 
abundant and most accessible plant food. 

84. In what special ways do root systems dis- 

tribute themselves? 

Some plants have tap-roots which penetrate deep 
into the earth ; others have no tap-roots, but only 
the spreading roots common to the higher plants. 

85. What is the work or function of roots? 

To attach the plant to the soil and to absorb soil- 
water containing dissolved plant food. 

21 



22 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

86. How is plant food absorbed by roots? 

By the power known as osmosis. 

87. What is osmosis? 

The power or tendency which causes fluids to mix 
or diffuse through vegetable or animal membranes, 
the movement in liquids being usually most rapid 
from the more dilute to the denser liquid. 

88. How does this result in feeding the plant? 

The soil-water passing into the plant through the 
outer walls of the root-hairs carries dissolved plant 
food with it. 

89. What becomes of the water absorbed by the 

roots ? 

It is forced or drawn up through the stem and 
branches of the plant to the leaves. 

90. What becomes of the water sent up from the 

roots of the plant to the leaves? 

Most of it is evaporated from the surface of the 
leaves, the remaining portion assisting in the dis- 
tribution or diffusion of the elaborated plant food, 

91. At what point does a root increase in length? 
Just behind the tip or root-cap ; the tip itself is 

hardened to enable it to move forward in response 
to the pressure from the growing cells behind it. 

92. Where does the absorption of soil-water take 

place ? 

Through the root-hairs and the newer portions of 
the lengthening roots. 



PLANT MANAGEMENT 21, 

93. What is the function of the stem of a plant? 

It connects the root-system with the leaf-system, 
in many cases maintaining itself and its branches in 
an upright position. 

94. What is elaborated plant food? 

The raw plant food that has been absorbed by 
the plant through its roots and its leaves and then 
so acted upon in the leaves that it is in condition to 
nourish the plant. 

95. What are the functions of leaves? 

They are the breathing and digesting organs of 
the plant. 

96. How^ is plant food digested in the leaves? 

The protoplasm of the leaves, in the presence of 
sunlight and with the help of a green substance 
known as chlorophyl, transforms the food elements 
into starch and other organic compounds which are 
available for the building up of the plant structure. 

97. What is protoplasm? 

The active living substance of the cells of both 
plants and animals ; in it and by it the life-processes 
are carried on. 

98. How does the plant get its carbon? 

In the breathing processes of plants, the leaves 
take in carbon dioxide with the air. This carbon 
dioxide is appropriated by the protoplasm and, in 
the presence of sunlight, and with the aid of chloro- 
phyl, broken down and recombined to make other 
compounds, chiefly starch. 







MEUL0'njs(5WEET CLOVER) 




HAIRY VETCH 



CRIMSON CLOVER 



A collection of legumes showing the nodules on the roots. 

24 



PLANT MANAGEMENT 2^ 

99. How do plants get their oxygen and hydrogen? 

From the water taken in through the roots. 
Water is a compound of two parts hydrogen and one 
part oxygen. 

100. How do plants get their mineral matter? 

From the soil. It is taken up by the roots when 
dissolved in water. All mineral matter is found in 
the ashes when the ])lant is burned. 

loi. How do plants get their nitrogen? 

Most plants, including the cereal grains and 
grasses, get their nitrogen as dissolved nitrates 
taken up through the roots. The legume family of 
plants, which includes all the peas, beans, clovers, 
alfalfa and many others, have the power of using the 
free nitrogen of the air. 

102. Why are legumes especially valuable as a 

farm crop? 

Because they -add nitrogen to the soil, which is 
the most expensive fertilizing element, and also fur- 
nish protein, the most expensive animal food com- 
pound. 

103. Why are plants useful to man? 

Because they are the direct and indirect source 
of supply of his food and clothing and of many other 
articles that serve his needs and his tastes; also be- 
cause of the services which animals supported by 
plants are able to render. 

104. What plants are most useful to man? 

Those that have been domesticated or adapted by 



26 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

selection, cultivation, and other means to the special 
purposes of man. 

CULTIVATION 

105. What is the environment of a plant? 

All of the things and conditions that surround 
and influence a plant are called its environment — 
such as heat, moisture, light, food, and the physi- 
cal and chemical condition of the soil ; also other 
plants, diseases, insects, birds, and other animals. 

106. In what ways is the environment of cultivated 

plants more favorable than that of plants in 
the wild state ? 

In the wild or natural state, plants compete with 
each other for room and other conditions favorable 
to growth ; under domestication, man controls or 
modifies the environment, and the plant is given the 
most favorable conditions for its development in the 
direction desired. 

107. How does man control the environment of 

plants ? 

By determining the kind and limiting the num- 
ber that shall grow on a given area and by mak- 
ing the conditions favorable to growth by cultiva- 
ting, fertilizing, draining, and watering the soil. 

108. What is the first step in cultivation? 
The preparation of the seed bed. 

109. How is the seed bed usually prepared? 

By plowing or otherwise breaking up the soil and 



PLANT MANAGEMENT 2/ 

by the use of other implements to pulverize it more 
completely. 

no. What is the second step? 

Planting' the seed. 

111. What is the third step? 

Tilling the soil among the plants — inter-tillage. 

112. How does tillage benefit the plant? 

By making plant food more available, promoting 
the increase of feeding rootlets, aerating the soil, 
conserving soil moisture, increasing wholesome bac- 
terial activitv, and destrovino^ weeds. 

113. What is plant propagation? 

The artificial increase or multiplication of plants 
by taking advantage of their natural tendencies. 

114. How are plants propagated? 

By the use of seeds or spores and by the use of 
parts of the living plant, the latter being known as 
division and having many modifications. 

115. What is the distinction between propagation 

and reproduction? 

Propagation may be the mere continuation of the 
old individual, as in the case of a cutting or the 
runner of a strawberry plant ; while reproduction 
implies the union of cells of opposite sexes and is 
effected by the use of seeds or spores. 

116. What are the principal forms of propagation 

by division? 
Propagation by suckers or sprouts that originate 
from roots or underground stems ; by stolons or 




28 



PLAXT MANAGEMENT 29 

branches that start at or near the surface and root 
themselves at joints or tips after growing a consider- 
able distance above the ground; l)y layers or parts 
of the plant surrounded or covered with earth to 
promote rooting; by division of the crown of the 
plant, as in case of the rhubarb ; by bulbs, like those 
of the lily; by bulbels or bulblets, as onion sets; 
by corms, as those of the crocus ; by tubers, as those 
of the potato ; by leaves, slips, and cuttings of ma- 
tured wood, which are rooted after being cut from 
the living plant ; by budding and grafting, which 
involve the attaching of the living bud or scion to 
another tree or branch than that on which it grew, 
this being the common way of propagating peaches 
and apples. 

117. What are the principal classes of crops grown 

by farmers? 

Grain crops, such as corn, Avheat, oats, and rice; 
forage crops, such as the clovers, grasses, and other 
plants from which hay and fodder are made ; fruit 
crops, such as apples, peaches, plums, cherries, and 
grapes, the fruit-growing farmer being also known 
as a horticulturist ; vegetable crops, including pota- 
toes, beets, carrots, asparagus, cabbage, lettuce, and 
a long list of other plants, the vegetable farmer be- 
ing also called a gardener or truck-farmer. 

118. How are grain and forage plants propagated? 

By seeds planted in the earth. 

119. What precautions should be taken in select- 

ing seed? 
Such as will assure trueness to type and variety, 



30 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

adaptability to soil and climate, purity, a high de- 
gree of germinating power, and productiveness. 

120. How deep should seeds be planted? 

Usually about two or three times the diameter of 
the seed — deeper when the soil is warm, dry, and 
porous; shallower when it is cold, wet, and heavy. 

121. What does the seed need in order to germinate 

or sprout? 
Water, air, and a certain degree of heat. 

122. In addition to water, air, and heat, what does 

the growing plant need? 

Dissolved plant food and sunlight. 
PLANT ENEMIES 

123. What are plant diseases ? 

Affections due to the attacks of fungi, bacteria, 
and nematode or eel worms, and to imperfect nu- 
trition. 

124. What are fungi? 

Low forms of plants, which secure their nourish- 
ment from other plants, upon which they live as 
parasites, or from decaying organic matter. 

125. What is organic matter? 

• Any substance which is the product of the growth 
of animal or plant. The organic matter of the soil 
consists of the remains of plants or animals or of 
both. 



PLANT MANAGEMENT 3 1 

126. How do fungi (singular, "fungus") injure the 

plants upon which they feed? 

By consuming their elaborated sap, destroying 
their tissues, disfiguring or killing their seeds and 
fruits, and in other ways making them less useful 
to man. 

127. How are fungous diseases prevented or cured? 

By the use of remedies called fungicides, which 
either destroy the spores of the fungi or prevent or 
retard the development of the fungous diseases, 
enabling the infested plant to mature its fruit. 

128. What fungicide is most commonly used? 

The bordeaux mixture. 

129. How is it prepared? 

To make a 50-gallon barrel of bordeaux mixture, 
dissolve three pounds of copper sulphate (blue vit- 
riol) in two or three gallons of warm water by sus- 
pending it in a cloth sack in the upper part of a 
wooden or earthen vessel containing the water. 
While the sulphate is dissolving, slake five pounds 
of fresh lime and make it into a thin solution by 
adding two or three gallons of water. Put about 
25 gallons of water into the spray barrel ; add the 
sulphate solution, stirring thoroughly ; after which 
pour in the milk of lime, continuing the stirring for 
some time. The milk of lime should be carefully 
strained before being put into the barrel, to avoid 
clogging the pump and spray nozzles. This is the 
strong bordeaux mixture, suitable for use on apple 
trees ; for use on peach and plum trees, it may be 
made with two pounds of copper sulphate and five 
of lime. 




32 



PLANT MANAGEMENT 33 

130. What are some of the more common fungous 

diseases? 

The smuts of corn and other grains, the black- 
knot of the pkim and cherry, the black rot of the 
grape, potato blight, apple-leaf rust, apple-scab, and 
bean anthracnose. 

131. How may these diseases be prevented? 

Some of them (as the smuts) by treating the seed 
with chemicals or hot water, preferably by immers- 
ing the seed for ten minutes in water at a tempera- 
ture of 135 degrees Fahrenheit; some of them (as 
the smut of corn and black-knot) by cutting out 
the affected part ; and most of the others by the ap- 
plication of the fungicide known as bordeaux mix- 
ture. 

132. What diseases of plants are caused by bac- 

teria? 

Pear blight, which attacks both pears and apples, 
is one of the most noteworthy of bacterial diseases. 
Brown rot of tomatoes and potatoes, boll rot of 
cotton and a number of other bacterial diseases are 
caused by bacteria closely related to the species 
which causes pear blight. None of them are well 
understood, and no satisfactory treatment has been 
discovered. 

133. What are eel worms? 

The eel worms or nematodes which cause dis- 
eases of plants are microscopic worms, and do seri- 
ous injury to roses, tomatoes, cucumbers, and some 
other plants by causing the growth of galls. 



34 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

134. How do insects injure plants? 

By eating their leaves and fruit, boring into fruits 
and seeds, sucking the juice from bark and leaves, 
burrowing in stems and even in the trunks of large 
trees, and in many other ways. 

135. How are insects classified as regards their 

eating habits? 
They are divided into two groups — biting insects 
and sucking insects. Those of the first group eat by 
biting and chewing ; those of the second, by punc- 
turing the skin or bark of the animal or plant upon 
which they feed and sucking its blood or sap. 



IV. FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 
FARM CROPS CLASSIFIED 

136. What are farm crops? 

Sometimes called field crops, and includes all 
crops that are extensively cultivated and adapted to 
extensive rather than intensive cultivation. 

137. What crops are so classified? 

All the leading cereals such as corn, wheat, rye 
and oats, and all forage crops grown for hay or 
pasture, potatoes, tobacco, buckwheat and a num- 
ber of others. 

138. How are field crops classified? 

They may be classified as cereals, grasses, 
legumes, tubers, roots, sugar plants, fibers, with 
other minor classes. 

139. What are cereals? 

Any grass grown for its edible grain is called a 
cereal, which includes the whole plant. Buckwheat 
is not a cereal, but it is generally put in that class 
because its grain has a similar use. 

140. How are cereals cultivated? 

All cereals are annual grasses and are planted or 
sown in properly prepared seed beds. Corn is 
planted in rows one or both ways and interculti- 
vated while growing with an implement adapted to 
that purpose. The small grains, as wheat or oats, 
are drilled or sown broadcast in a properly pre- 
ss 




36 



. FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 37 

pared seed bed without subsequent cultivation. 

141. Are other grasses largely cultivated? 

Yes. A very large area is devoted to hay, pas- 
ture and forage crops in the United States. 

142. How are these crops grown? 

Some of them, as the millets, are annuals, though 
most of them are perennial, growing two or more 
years from the same seeding, such as timothy, 
orchard grass, blue grass and many others. 

PASTURES AND MEADOWS 

143. What are pastures? 

Pastures are areas of land or fields where grasses 
and other forage plants are grown more or less 
permanently for grazing by farm stock. 

144. To what conditions are pastures best adapted? 

To rough, steep and stony lands, too rough for 
cultivation or so. steep that they would wash or 
erode badly if plowed. 

145. What are meadows? 

Meadows are areas of land sown to grass which 
is allowed to grow to maturity when it is cut, dried 
and stored for animal feed. 

146. What kind of land is best adapted to 

meadows ? 

Meadow grasses grow best in rich, moist lands, 
which should be comparatively level and smooth so 
that mowers and hay-handling machinery may be 
easily operated over them. 



FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 39 

147. Are plants other than grasses used for hay? 

In addition to all the grasses including the cereals, 
all the legumes are sometimes made into hay. 

148. What are legumes? 

The legumes include all the peas, beans, clovers, 
and many others classified by botanists as the 
leguminous or pea family, of which there are about 
300 varieties. The best known in this country as 
hay or forage plants are clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy- 
beans and Canada field peas. 

149. Are legumes grown for other purposes? 

Peas and beans are largely grown for human food, 
and should be used more generally than they are. 
Our people should "know beans" better than they 
do. 

150. What is a forage crop? 

In its broadest sense it means any kind of food 
for animals, and means about the same as "rough- 
ness,'' which includes the whole plant without the 
grain. Most of the plants used for forage are either 
grasses or legumes. 

ROOTS AND TUBERS 

151. What is a tuber? 

A tuber plant is one that develops on its roots an 
enlarged stem. The best known and most impor- 
tant is the common white or Irish potato. The 
Jerusalem artichoke and chufa are also grown in a 
limited way. 



FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 4I 

152. What are root crops? 

Root crops are plants grown for their roots which 
are used for stock or human food such as turnips, 
rutabagas, carrots, beets, parsnips and the like. 
They are not largely grown in the United States, 
but are in Canada and some European countries. 

153. Why are root crops not generally grown in 

this country for stock food? 

Partly because climatic conditions are unfavor- 
able, but mainly because of the cheap and abundant 
production of Indian corn, which is king of stock 
foods. 

154. What are principal sugar-producing crops? 

The sugar produced in this country is almost 
wholly derived from sugar beets grown in the North 
and West, and sugar cane grown in Louisiana and 
some other southern states. Sorghum is also grown 
for the production of syrup. Some sugar and syrup 
is made from the'hard or sugar maple. 

FIBER AND STIMULANT CROPS 

155. What are the principal fiber plants of the 

United States? 

The only fiber crops grown in field cultivation are 
cotton, flax, and hemp. Of these, cotton is by far 
the most important. 

156. What stimulant farm crops are raised? 

Tobacco is of American origin and has been 
grown in large quantities since the first settlement 



42 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



of the country. Tea is grown in a small way and 
coffee is profitably grown in Porto Rico and Hawaii. 

LIMITING FACTORS 

157. What are the limiting factors of crop produc- 
tion? 

The limiting factor of first importance is climate 




A well-developed hill of sweet potatoes grown in good soil. 



which may be modified to some extent. The water 
supply may be increased or reduced by irrigation 
or drainage. Next to the climate the soil is the lim- 
iting factor which may be greatly modified by 



manuring and cultivation. 



FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 43 

158. Are all soils equally adapted to all farm crops? 
No. Certain soils may be better adapted to wheat 

and corn ; to legumes and potatoes or to tobacco and 
wheat. 

159. How may the adaptability of the soil be de- 

termined? 

By physical and chemical analysis or by actual 
experience with a given crop on the land itself. The 
last is by far the most reliable. 

CROPS TO GROW 

160. Upon what does the profitableness of a crop 

depend? 

Growers of farm crops have learned that the profit 
may depend upon many things, the character of the 
soil, rainfall, markets and transportation facilities. 
Under one set of conditions the production of cer- 
tain crops might result in loss, while other crops 
might be profitable. Every crop grower should 
carefully consider these things. 

161. What other factors should be considered in 

deciding what crops to grow? 

Since farmers must spend most of their waking 
hours about their business, they should consult 
their own likes and dislikes and do the things that 
give them most pleasure. Their experience and cap- 
ital available should also be considered. 

162. What is the safest guide for determining the 

best crops to grow in any neighborhood? 

As a rule the crops that have been generally 



44 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



grown in that locality are safest. As a general 
proposition the people who have long lived and 
farmed in the same locality have adjusted them- 
selves well to the environmental conditions. It is 
safer to attempt to improve the crops already grown 
than to introduce new ones. New crops in any 
locality should be grown experimentally at first. 

163. What is meant by specialty farming? 

Specialty farming is growing a single crop. A 




Yard and sheds tor cattle feeding. 



good illustration is the great wheat farms of the 
Northwest. Commercial orcharding is rapidly be- 
coming specialized. 

164. What is general farming? 

As distinct from specialized farming, a man who 
grows several kinds of crops, including live stock, 
is called a general farmer. There are many ad- 
vantages in general farming, the most important of 



FARM CROP MANAGEMENT 45 

which are opportunity for rotation of crops, distribu- 
tion of labor and the practical . certainty that all 
crops will not fail at once. 

165. What effect has one-crop farming upon the 

land? 

Professor Carrier of A^irginia says one-crop farming 
has ruined more farms in America than any other 
cause. Continuous cropping, year after year, with 
tobacco in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky ; 
with corn in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa ; with wheat 
in Minnesota and the Dakotas ; and with cotton in 
the Gulf States has in each instance had the same 
effect — and that is soil depletion. 

166. How may soil depletion be avoided? 

By growing a variety of crops, judicious rotation, 
growing soil-improving plants, keeping live stock, 
saving the manure and in every possible way re- 
turning to the soil the fertility removed by the crops. 

• ROTATION 

167. What are the advantages of rotation? 

The advantages of rotation may be summarized 
as follows — distributes the labor throughout the 
year; different plants require different food ele- 
ments ; some plants go deeper in the soil than others ; 
keeps down weeds; legumes take nitrogen from the 
air; prevents leaching by keeping the ground cov- 
ered; furnishes income throughout the year; gives 
variety of forage and reduces insect pests. 

168. What is a good five-year rotation? 

First year, corn ; second year, wheat or oats ; 



46 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE ^ 

third year, wheat, sown to timothy and clover; 
fourth year, hay ; fifth year, hay or pasture. 

169. What is a good four-year rotation? 

First year, corn, potatoes or tobacco ; second year, 
wheat, sown to timothy and clover; third year, hay; 
fourth year, hay or pasture. 

170. What is a good three-year rotation? 

First year, corn, or cotton in the South ; second 
year, cowpeas, soy beans, or Canada field peas ; 
third year, wheat followed by cowpeas or rye for 
a cover crop to be plowed under the next spring. 

171. What are some other methods of rotation? 

Catch crops may be grown to advantage in some 
localities. Cowpeas. crimson clover or rye may be 
sown in the comi at the last cultivation. In every 
rotation at least one legume crop should be grown. 



V. ANIMAL MANACxEMENT 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

172. What are domestic animals? 

Such animals as have been tamed or domesticated 
by man and made of vahie to him. 

173. Which are most valuable? 
Horses, cattle, sheep, swine and poultry. 

174. What is the best animal to keep? 

Whether kept for flesh, milk, eggs, wool or work, 
the best animal to keep is the one that will return 
the greatest quantity of the desired product for a 
given amount of feed. 

175. What is the object of breeding? 

The object of breeding is the improvement of 
domestic animals in those qualities which are of 
the greatest value to man. 

176. What is a breed of live stock? 

A distinct race or kind having characteristics or 
qualities that are quite uniformly transmitted from 
parent to offspring. 

177. What is a pure breed? 

A pure breed of animals is a race with well-estab- 
lished characters, bred for many generations without 
admixture of other blood. 

47 



48 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

178. What is meant by cross-breeding? 

Cross-breeding is the mating of animals of differ- 
ent pure breeds ; as Herefords and Shorthorns 
among cattle. 

179. What is a grade ? 

A grade is a cross between a pure-bred animal 
and one of mixed or common breeding; as, the off- 
spring resulting from the mating of a pure-bred 
Shorthorn with an animal of common or mixed 
blood. An animal of three-quarters or more of pure 
blood is called a high grade of that breed. 

180. What kinds of animals should be used for 

breeding purposes? 

Nothing but pure-bred males should be used ; but 
for ordinary or butcher purposes well-selected grade 
or common females may be used. 

181. How are breeds of live stock established? 

By the application of well-established principles 
of reproduction and the selection of animals having 
the desired traits, which become fixed by inherit- 
ance. 

182. What are the fundamental laws or principles 

that govern breeding? 

While there are many principles that must be 
taken into account by the breeder, the three that are 
considered fundamental are : The law that like pro- 
duces like ; the principle of variation ; and the prin- 
ciple of atavism. 

183. What is the law that "like produces like"? 

The law that like produces like means that the 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 



49 



offspring will bear a close resemblance to their par- 
ents; sometimes called the law of heredity. 

184. What is the principle of variation? 

The principle of variation is the well-known 
tendency of animals to develop characteristics dif- 
ferent from their parents; also called the law that 
like does not produce like. 




A handsome Holstein-Friesian cow showing fine dairy type. 



185. What is the principle of atavism? 

By the principle of atavism is meant the tendency 
of animals to revert to a more or less remote an- 
cestral type. Among stockmen it is frequently 
called reversion, "throwing back," or breeding back. 




50 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 5 1 

1 86. What is meant by heredity? 

By heredity is meant all of the characteristics, 
qualities, and tendencies transmitted by parents and 
more remote ancestors. 

187. What do we understand by "type" as appHed 

to animals? 

When the special character of a breed has become 
fixed by inheritance, it is called a type ; as, dairy 
and beef types among cattle, draft and speed types 
among horses, and mutton and wool types among 
sheep. 

CATTLE 

188. Which are the most important breeds of dairy 

cattle ? 

The Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Holstein, and 
Brown Swiss. 

189. Which are the best known breeds of beef 

cattle ? ' 

The Shorthorn, Hereford, Polled Angus, and 
Galloway. 

190. Which are known as dual-purpose breeds? 
The Polled Durham, Brown Swiss, Red Polled, 

Devon, and some families of Shorthorn. 

191. What are the characteristics of a dairy cow? 

An angular, wedge-shaped body, small head, 
large mouth, well-developed udder, large stomach, 
good digestion, and the power to convert a large 
portion of feed into milk rich in butter-fat. 



52 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



192. What are the leading characteristics of a beef 
animal? 

The body well rounded, smooth, and compact; the 
upper and lower lines of the body nearly parallel ; 
broad back and well-developed hindquarters ; short, 
stout legs ; a general appearance of blockiness ; with 
large capacity for converting its feed into flesh, 
which is laid on where the best cuts of beef are 
found. 




Good beet-type, Aberdeen-Angus. 



193. What are the characteristics of dual-purpose 
cattle? 

Dual-purpose cattle are those which are capable 
in a fair degree of producing both meat and milk, 
and should be kept by farmers who seek returns in 
meat and dairy products. 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 



HORSES 



53 



194. How are breeds of horses classified? 

As draft, coach, and speed horses. In each class 
there are several distinct breeds, such as the Ara- 
bian, the Thoroughbred, or running horse, and the 
American trotting horse in the speed class. 




Champion Percheron Stallion. 



195. What are the chief characteristics of a draft 

horse? 

Great size, weight, and strength ; broad back and 
large legs and feet ; slow and deliberate motion, mild 
and docile disposition. 

196. Which are the best known draft breeds? 

The Percheron of France, the Shire of England, 
and the Clydesdale of Scotland. 



54 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



197. What are the distinctive characteristics of the 
coach horse? 

It is between the speed and draft horses in size, 
combining certain characteristics of both. In some 
respects it may be classed as a general-purpose 
horse. 




Good t>pe ot roadster or driving horse. 

198. Which are the leading breeds of coach horses? 

The Cleveland Bay, an English breed; and the 
French and German coach horses. 

199. What are the chief characteristics of speed 

horses? 

The chief characteristics of the speed horses are 
beauty, intelligence, courage, speed, and endurance. 
Speed horses have been purely bred longer than any 
other domestic animals. Pedigrees, or records of 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 



55 



pure breeding, were kept for horses for a long period 
before such records were kept for other animals. It 
seems that the speed horse has almost reached the 
highest possible improvement. 

200. Which are the best known of the speed 
horses? 

The Thoroughbred, or English running horse ; 
and the American Trotter, Pacer, and Saddler. All 
of these are more or less directly descended from the 
Arabian horses. 




Prize-winning Dorset ram. 

SHEEP 

201. For what purposes are sheep kept by farmers? 

For the wool and mutton which they produce. 

202. How are breeds of sheep classified? 

Often according to the kind of wool produced ; 



56 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



as, fine-wool, middle-wool, and long-wool ; some- 
times as wool-producing and mutton breeds. 

203. Which are the best known breeds of each 
class ? 

Fine-wool : Merino, Delaine, and Rambouillet ; 
middle-wool : Southdown, Shropshire, Dorset, 




Pair of prize-winning Shropshire sheep. 

Hampshire, and Oxford ; long-wool : Leicester, Cots- 
wold, and Lincoln. 

204. Which are the best known mutton breeds? 

Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford, 
Dorset, Cotswold and Lincoln. 

205. Where should sheep be kept? 

In rough, mountainous pastures, where the grass 
is scant and the surface steep. Sheep are natural 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 



57 



mountain climbers, but do not thrive on low or 
marshy lands. 

SWINE 

206. How are the breeds of swine classified? 

According to size ; as, large, medium, and small ; 
also as lard and bacon hogs. 




Fine specimen of Berkshire sow and nine pigs. A'\oney makers for their 

owner. 



207. Which are the leading breeds of each class 
of swine? 

Large breeds : Chester White ; Improved York- 
shire, and Tamworth ; medium breeds : Berkshire, 
Poland-China, and Duroc-Jersey ; small breeds : 
Suffolk, Essex, and Small Yorkshire. 



58 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

208. What are the characteristics of bacon hogs? 

They have the ability to produce a large amount 
of side meat of superior quality for the manufac- 
ture of bacon. 

209. Which are the most typical bacon breeds? 

The typical bacon breeds are the Large Improved 
Yorkshire and the Tamworth. 

210. Which are the typical lard-producing breeds? 
The Poland-China, Suffolk, Essex, and Small 

Yorkshire. 

211. What are the essentials of form common to 

all breeds of swine? 

Good length and depth of body, which should be 
in the shape of a parallelogram, with good width 
and compactness. 

212. What are some of the advantages of keeping 

swine? 
They can adapt themselves to many conditions ; 
can utilize many waste products about a farm ; re- 
quire but little attention ; and will produce a pound 
of flesh more cheaply than any other domestic ani- 
mal. They are especially adapted to the corn-grow- 
ing sections of the country. 

POULTRY 

213. Which are the best known kinds of poultry? 
Chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. There are 

many breeds of each kind. 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 59 

214. How are breeds of chickens classified? 

As egg", meat, and general-purpose breeds. 

215. Which are the best known breeds of chickens? 

Of egg breeds the Leghorn, Minorca, and Hou- 
dan ; of meat breeds, the Brahma, Cochin, and In- 
dian Game ; of general-purpose breeds, the Ply- 
mouth Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red. 




Small house for young chicks. 



216. What kind of chickens should be kept? 

Only pure-bred fowls ; but care should be taken 
to select birds with good egg-producing records. 
The selection of a breed will depend mainly upon 
whether egg or meat production is the object. 



6o 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



217. Which are the best known breeds of ducks? 

The Pekin, Rouen, Cayuga, Aylesbury, and sev- 
eral varieties of w^ild ducks. 

218. Which are the most popular breeds of geese? 

The African, Enibden, Toulouse, Chinese, and 
Canadian. 

219. What are the leading characteristics of ducks 

and geese? 

All have webbed feet, are good swimmers, and 
spend much time in the water, being classed as 






^mmi^^ 



View of an extensive modern poultry plant. 

waterfowls. They are kept for the production of 
meat, eggs and feathers ; are hardy, easily raised, 
less liable to disease than chickens, and may be kept 
with large profit where conditions are favorable. 

220. Where did the turkey originate? 

In America, where wild turkeys are still found. 
The turkey is the one valuable domestic animal of 
American origin. 

221. What are the habits of turkeys? 

They are of a roving disposition and still retain 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 6l 

many of their wild habits ; do not stand confinement 
well and are inclined to roost out of doors ; are likely 
to wander off during the day and make their nests 
in remote and secluded places. 

222. Why are turkeys kept? 

For their flesh, which is more desired and brings 
higher prices than that of any other kind of poultry. 
They are especially popular for Thanksgiving and 
Christmas feasts. 

FEEDING 

223. Why do we feed animals? 

Because animal bodies are built up or grow from 
the food consumed and digested. 

224. Of what are animals' bodies composed? 

Water, protein, carbohydrates, fat, and ash. From 
40 to 60 per cent of the animal body is composed of 
water, which is supplied by the food and drink of the 
animal. 

225. What are the important elements of animal 

feeds ? 
Those that produce muscle, blood, and hair or 
wool, called proteins; those that produce animal 
heat and energy, called carbohydrates and fat ; and 
those that remain after an animal body is burned, 
called ash. 

226. What is protein? 

That part of the feed which contains nitrogen ; 
in grain it is called gluten ; in cheese, casein ; and 
in eggs, albumen. 



62 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



227. What are carbohydrates? 

The starch and sugar compounds in animal feeds ; 
they are the cheapest and most abundant nutrients 
in feeding stuffs. Some feeds are rich in protein ; 
others in carbohydrates. 

228. What is fat? 

The oily substance of feeding stuffs. As fat is a 
heat and energy-producing material, the same as 




Corn and sorghum grown for silage produced 15 tons an acre on red clay 
land formerly in a run-down condition. 

carbohydrates, it is included with the latter after its 
carbohydrate value has been obtained by multiply- 
ing the amount of digestible fat by 2.25. 

229. What is a feeding standard? 

A feeding standard is the result of an effort to 
determine the amount of dry matter, and also the 
amount of digestible protein and of digestible car- 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 63 

bohydrates, required daily by an animal weighing 
one thousand pounds. 

230. What is meant by the term nutritive ratio? 

By ''nutritive ratio" is meant the proportion of 
digestible protein to digestible carbohydrate con- 
tained in the feeding stuff. For example, Indian 
corn contains 7.8 per cent of digestible protein, 66.7 
per cent of carbohydrates, and 4.8 per cent of fat. 
The carbohydrate value of the fat is found by mul- 
tiplying by 2.25 ; thus : 4.3 times 2.25 equals 9.7. 
Adding this amount to the percentage of carbohy- 
drates, 66.J, gives 76.4; which amount divided by 
the percentage of protein (7.8) gives the nutritive 
ratio as shown in the table under question 197, or 
1 : 9.8. 

231. Do all animals of the same weight require the 

same kind and amount of feed? 
They require very nearly the same amount to 
maintain a given weight when at rest ; but need 
larger amounts' and different proportions according 
to the work performed, such as labor and the pro- 
duction of flesh, bone, fat, milk, wool, feathers, and 
hair. 

232. What is a feeding standard for an animal 

weighing 1,000 pounds? 

For an ox at rest, 18 pounds of dry matter, con- 
taining .7 pounds of digestible protein and 8.15 
pounds of digestible carbohydrates, the nutritive 
ratio being i : 12; for a horse at work, 22.5 pounds 
of dry matter, containing 1.8 pounds of digestible 
protein and 11.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates. 



64 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

the nutritive ratio being 1:7; for a milk cow in full 
flow, 25 pounds of dry matter, containing 2.5 pounds 
of protein, and 15 pounds of carbohydrates, the nu- 
tritive ratio being 1:6; for growing pigs, 42 pounds 
of dry matter, containing 7.5 pounds of protein and 
30 pounds of carbohydrates, the nutritive ratio being 
I :4. 

233. Are there differences in the standards for 

large and small animals? 

The standards are worked out on a basis of 1,000 
pounds, which may be the weight of a single cow 
or horse, or of many pigs or chickens. In general, 
a little more feed in proportion to weight is required 
for small than for large animals because of the 
greater surface of their bodies in proportion to bulk. 

234. Are these feeding standards reliable? 

They are by no means absolutely accurate ; but 
in their application chemists and physiologists have 
made great efforts to make them accurate, and they 
have been and are of great value to stockmen. 
Prudent feeders will never ignore them. 

235. What is a balanced ration? 

A balanced ration is one in which the bulk and the 
digestible protein and carbohydrates are in that pro- 
portion which will most economically produce the 
particular results desired in feeding. 

236. How may a farmer know how much dry mat- 

ter and digestible protein and carbohydrates 
his feeding materials contain? 
By consulting what are known as nutrition tables. 
These have been published by the United States 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 



65 



Department of Agriculture and by various state ex- 
periment stations from the results of chemical analy- 
ses of all the common feeding stuffs, and show the 
amount of dry matter and of digestible protein and 
carbohydrates in the various feeds; as, clover hay, 
timothy hay, corn, oats, bran, cottonseed meal, and 
other stock feeds. 

237. What amounts and proportions of digestible 
nutrients (protein, carbohydrates and fats) 
are found in some of the common feeding 
stuffs? 

In the following table are shown the number of 
pounds of dry matter (D. M.), protein (P.), car- 
bohydrates (C. H.), and fats (F.) in 100 pounds of 
four kinds of roughage and four kinds of concen- 
trates together with the nutritive ratio (N. R.) of 
each of the feeding stuffs : 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



D. M. 



C.H. 



F. 



N. 11. 



Corn stover 
Clover hay . 
Timothy hay 
Oat straw . . . 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat bran 
Linseed meal 



59.5 


1.7 


32.4 


.7 


84.7 


6.8 


35.8 


1.7 


86.8 


2.8 


43.4 


1.4 


90.8 


1.2 


38. P 


.8 


89.4 


7.S 


66.7 


4.3 


89.0 


9.2 


47.3 


4.2 


88.1 


12.2 


39.2 


2.7 


90.8 


29.3 


32.7 


7.0 



20 

5.8 
16.7 
33.7. 
9.8 
6.2 
3.7 
1.7 



238. How may a ration for a dairy cow weighing 
1,000 pounds be made up from the food- 
stuffs named in the foregoing table or any 
of the standard nutrition tables? 

By making estimates and trial calculations until 
the right quantity of dry matter and the proper 



66 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



amount and proportions of nutrients are obtained. 
In the ration below the amount of dry matter is 
greater than is usually allowed by the standards : 



FEEDING STUFFS. ' 


lbs. 


D. M. 

lbs. 


P. 

lbs. 


C. H. 
lbs. 


F. 
lbs. 


Clover hay 

Corn stover . 

Oat straw 

Corn meal 

"Wlieat bran 

Linseed meal 


8 
10 
3 
5 
4 
3 


6.776 

5.95 

2.724 

4.47 

4.405 

2.724 


.544 

.17 

.036 

.39 

.61 

.879 


2.864 

3.24 

1.158 

3.235 

1.96 

. .981 


.136 

,07 

.024 

.21> 

.135 

.21 


Total 


33 


27.049 


2.629 


13.438 


79 







The nutritive ratio of the above ration is found 
by adding to the total carbohydrates 2 1-4 times the 
total fats and dividing by the weight of protein, 
thus: 13.438 plus (.79 X 2.25) — : — 2.629 equals 5.8, 
giving a nutritive ratio of i : 5.8. 

ANIMAL JUDGING 

239. What is animal judging? 

It is the weighing and estimating of the charac- 
teristics and points of excellence of domestic ani- 
mals with reference to their adaptation to the special 
use that is to be made of them. 



240. Why should all stock raisers be good judges? 

So as to know the value of the animals kept ; to 
prevent being imposed upon in buying or selling 
and so as to be able to determine if they are keep- 
ing the best class of animals for their purposes. 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 6/ 

241. How does being a good judge help a stock- 

man? 

Being a good judge of live stock through system- 
atic study broadens his influence and usefulness in 
his community and brings him in contact with pro- 
gressive breeders and men of affairs. 

242. How does being a good judge benefit a stock 

feeder? 

He understands market demands and knows how 
to select animals for feeding that will make profit- 
able gains in the feed lot, and when finished will 
command the best prices in the market. 

243. Why should a stock breeder be a good judge? 

It enables him to select the best animals for his 
purposes or to detect any weakness or undesirable 
characteristics and to reject inferior animals. 

244. What is the first requisite of a good judge? 

A thorough knowledge of the history, character- 
istics and types of different breeds of domestic ani- 
mals, including the breed standards, which have 
been adopted by the national associations for the 
registration of pure-bred live stock. 

245. How many kinds of judging are there? 

Two. Score-card judging and comparison judg- 
ing. 

246. What is a score card? 

It is a detailed description of the parts of an 
ideally perfect animal, indicating the relative value 
of each part as indicated by the following dairy cow 
score card : 



68 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



SCALE OF POINTS 



H£AD — 8 per cent. 

1. Muzzle^ broad 

2. Jaw, strong, firmlj' joined 

.3. Pace, medium length, clean 

4. Poreliead, broad between eyes, dishing 

5. Eyes, large, full, mild, bright 

6. Ears, medium size, flue texture, secre- 

tions oily and abundant, yellow 
color 

rOREQUARTERS — 10 per cent. 

7. Throat, clean 

8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to 

shoulders, free from dewlap 

0. "Withers, narrow, sharp 

10 Shoulders, sloping, smooth; brisket 

light 

11. Pore legs, straight, clean, well set un- 
der body 

BODY — 25 per cent. 

12.* Crops, free from fleshiness 

13. Chest, deep, roomy; floor broad 

14. Back, straight, strong; vertebra open 

15. Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart. 

Ifi. Barrel, deep, long, capacious 

17. IiOin, broad, strong 

HINDQUARTERS — 12 per cent. 

IS. Hips, prominent, wide apart 

19. Rump,' long, level, not sloping 

20. Pin Bones, wide apart 

21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering ... 

22. Thighs, spare, not fleshy 

23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample 

room for udder 

MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT— 30 per cent. 

24. UddeT, large very flexible, attached 

high behind, carrying well for- 
ward; quarters even, not cut up.. 

25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, 

convenient size \ 

26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending 

Avell forward 

27. Milk wells, large 

GENERAI. APPEARANCE — 15 per cent. 

28. Disposition, quiet, gentle 

29. Health, thrifty, vigorous 

30. Quality, free from coarseness 

throughout; skin soft, pliable; se- 
cretions abundant; hair fine 

31. Temperament, inherent tendency to 

dairy performance 

Total 




Points 
defi- 
cient 



1 
6 
3 
3 

10 
2 



15 

5 

4 
6 

2 
3 

4 

6 

100 



ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 69 

247. How are score cards made up? 

All score cards for different breeds and varieties 
of live stock are made up in the same way and sim- 
ilar to the one given above. The value given to 
each point is, of course, arbitrary, but based upon 
the agreement of the best judges of the class of ani- 
mals scored. 

248. What are the advantages of a score card? 

It helps the inexperienced judge to learn the 
names and location of the different parts of an ani- 
mal, and prevents his overlooking any important 
points or characteristics. 

249. What is comparison judging? 

It is comparing the points of a great many ani- 
mals with the ideal and with each other. It is the 
comparison of the parts of one animal with the parts 
of another of the same kind, class and age, keeping 
in mind the standard of that particular class. 

250. What use is made of comparison judging? 

Expert judges at fairs and stock shows usually 
judge by the comparative method. After a careful 
and thorough examination of all the competing 
animals by comparing one with another he decides 
which is best. In comparative judging much im- 
portance is given to uniformity of development. 

251. What consideration should judges give to per- 

formance ? 

In judging horses, considerable value should be 
given to training, gait and all other factors involved 
in performance, for his ability to do the work ex- 



70 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

pected is of primary importance. In judging- a 
dairy cow, performance is of even more importance, 
and should be duly considered by the judge, be- 
cause in the last analysis it is her ability to profit- 
ably produce milk and butter that fixes her value. 

252. Who should be judges of live stock? 

Every farmer, breeder, handler and dealer in live 
stock will find it decidedly to his advantage to be- 
come an expert judge of all species of animals and 
especially the class or classes of animals he han- 
dles, including poultry. 



VL DAIRY MANAGEMENT 
MILK 

253- What is the composition of milk? 

Milk is about eighty-eight per cent water, in 
which are found about twelve per cent of solids, 
composed of fat, casein, albumen, sugar, and min- 
eral matters. 

254. How is the fat or cream separated from the 

milk? 

Either by letting the milk stand in pans or other 
vessels, in which case the cream is separated from 
the heavier milk by gravity ; or by the use of a cream 
separator. 

255. How much milk does a cow produce in a year? 

The average cow from four to five thousand 
pounds ; in exceptional cases as much as thirty thou- 
sand pounds has been produced. The annual pro- 
duction by a cow of from six to ten times her own 
weight of milk is not unusual. 

256. How much butter fat does milk contain? 

The butter fat contained in cows' milk varies from 
less than three to more than six per cent, depending 
to some extent upon the breed, but largely on the 
individual animal. 

257. What is the Babcock milk tester? 

A machine invented by Prof. S. M. Babcock by 
which the exact amount of butter fat contained in 

71 




Part of the equipment of a modern dairy farm, showing delivery wagon 
and bottling operations. 



72 



DAIRY MANAGEMENT 73 

milk may be easily and cheaply determined and the 
value of the milk ascertained. 

258. What is necessary to the production of good 

milk? 

Healthy cows and perfect cleanliness in handling 
and caring for the milk, in order to keep disease 
germs and other undesirable bacteria out of it. 

259. What is pasteurized milk? 

Milk that has been heated to a temperature of 
about 160 degrees and kept at that temperature for 
fifteen minutes and then rapidly cooled to 50 degrees. 
This destroys most of the germs and improves the 
keeping quality of the milk. 

CREAMERY PROBLEMS 

260. What questions are asked by creamery 

patrons ? 

The following questions are the ones most gen- 
erally asked by creamery patrons. These questions 
and answers are taken from Bulletin 181 of the 
Kansas Experiment Station and being in the form 
adopted in this Catechism they are commended. 

261. Why was my test lower than last time? 

Authorities have found that any of the following 
circumstances will cause the cream test to drop con- 
siderably: 

(a) More water or skim milk than usual was used 
in flushing the bowl of the separator. The speed of 
the separator was too low. 

(b) The separator was incompletely washed. 




74 



DAIRY MANAGEMENT 75 

(c) The milk was allowed to flow into the separa- 
tor bowl too rapidly. 

262. Does sweet cream test the same as sour 

cream ? 

Yes. The amount of butter fat in the cream is 
not affected by souring, but cream in bad condition 
is more difficult to sample. The better the cream 
the more accurate the test will be. 

263. How thick should I skim my cream? 

As close as possible to 35 per cent. 

264. What is the objection to a 25 per cent cream? 
You give away too much skim milk, which is a 

good feed for young stock. Furthermore, a 25 per 
cent cream does not keep well. 

265. What is the objection to a 45 per cent cream? 

You cannot skim the thicker cream without los- 
ing a great de^l of butter fat in the skim milk in 
the course of a year. There is also considerable 
mechanical loss from the amount of cream which ad- 
heres to the cans and utensils. 

266. What is the best breed of cows to keep when 

cream is sold? 

The Jersey, Holstein, Guernsey and Ayrshire are 
considered the best. Some strains of Shorthorns 
and Red Polls are also good. 

267. What are the poorest breeds for dairy pur- 

poses? 

All breeds which are raised chiefly for beef. 



76 A CATECHISM OF AGRICL'LTURE 

268. How can I tell my best cows from my poor- 
est? 

By weighing all the milk produced by each cow 
during the year and testing the milk for butter fat 
at frequent intervals. 




Fine type of Jersey cow with a profitable record. 

269. How much milk and butter fat should a dairy 
cow give in a year? 

At least 6,000 pounds of milk and 225 pounds of 
butter fat. Under Kansas conditions a cow must 
give 4,000 pounds of milk or 160 pounds of butter 
fat to pay for her keep. The greater the amount 
above that the more profitable is the cow. . 



DAIRY MANAGEMENT 



17- 



270. What is the world's record for butter fat pro- 

duced by one cow? 
At the present time it is 998 and a fraction pounds, 
of butter fat in 365 days. This record is held by a 
Holstein cow. 

271. Is that the highest record? 

No. Since the Kansas Bulletin was published 
Banostine Belle De Kol, a pure-bred Holstein owned 




Banostine Belle De Kol, a high-class dairy type Holstein cow. 

in Ohio, has become the "new queen of the dairy 
world." She produced in one year 27,404 pounds 
of milk testing 3.85 per cent butter fat. This is 
equivalent to 1,322.9 pounds of butter, or 3.5 pounds 
a day for 365 days. During the test silage and 
alfalfa were used nearly all the time. 

272. Is the Babcock test always accurate? 
Yes, if properly handled. 



T 



78 A CATECHISM OF ACRICCLTl'RE 

273. What protection has the patron against inac- 
curate tests? 

All persons paying for cream on the basis of the 
Babcock test must first pass an examination and 
secure a permit granted by the state. Every opera- 
tor is examined at least once every three years. 




Filling a silo with corn. 



274. What determines the price of butter fat? 

The condition of the butter market is the chief 
factor. This is determined by supply and demand. 
No one can predict accurately what the butter mar- 
ket will be, but it is generally much higher in winter 
than in summer. 



DAIRY MANAGEMENT 79 

275. Are silos a success and is silage a good winter 

feed? 

Yes, decidedly so, if the silos are properly made 
and filled. 

276. What is the best make of cream separator? 

The one which will skim the closest, last the long- 
est, and be the easiest to clean thoroughly. Do not 
purchase one until you have investigated several 
makes and have had the agents give practical dem- 
onstrations. Inquire among your neighbors. Do 
not buy a separator entirely on the strength of an 
advertisement or on unsubstantiated claims. 

277. What place on the farm is the best for keep- 

ing cream? 

The coolest, cleanest place available. This is gen- 
erally a spring house or a building provided With a 
tank of cold water changed frequently. 

278. Is not a cellar or cave a good place to keep 

cream? 

No. The air in a cellar or cave is seldom pure 
and the temperature is not low enough in summer. 

279. Where should a cream separator be kept? 

The separator should be kept in a separate room 
or building provided for the purpose. The build- 
ing should be at least fifty feet from the stable and 
the yard where the animals are kept. 

280. How often should a cream separator be 

washed? 

The bowl and all parts of a cream separator which 
come in contact with milk or cream should be thor- 



80 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

oughly washed and scalded after each separation. 
It is unlawful to use a dirty separator or dirty uten- 
sils. 

281. What causes cream to become sour? 

The action of bacteria. The souring of cream is 
delayed by keeping it clean and keeping it cold. 

282. What are the chief causes of the bad flavors 

in cream? 

Pastures containing strong-flavored weeds. Keep- 
ing cream in caves and cellars. Action of objec- 
tionable bacteria. 

283. What is the best time of year for cows to 

freshen? 

In October or November, provided the young 
calves are given adequate winter shelter. A cow 
freshening in the fall produces from thirty to forty 
pounds more of butter fat in a year than the same 
cow freshening in the spring. Moreover, most of 
the additional butter fat is produced when prices 
are hisrhest. 



'fe' 



284. Are creamery patrons ever dissatisfied? 

Every creamery has a few patrons which contin- 
ually are dissatisfied. The following remarks are 
given in this Kansas bulletin on dealing with such 
patrons : 

285. How should dissatisfied customers be treated? 

*'Give him courteous treatment, but no favors. 
"Refrain from arguing with him about his cream. 
"Do not test a sample of his cream delivered else- 



DAIRY MANAGEMENT 8l 

where unless you personally take a sample of his 
cream. 

"Be frank and open with him and invite him to see 
his cream weighed, sampled, and tested in accord- 
ance with the rules of this bulletin." 



\TI. FARM MAXAGEMEXT 

svsiNzss :.:zrHODS 



h^ -^ .... . _...^._. :. :i: r.c f^ni: or another, 
troim the beginnino^ of the race. It is the most 
fondanieiital and imponani of all occnpatioiis and 
nntil recent years has made less prc^resvS than any 
other. 

287. Why has agikiiltDre pn^ressed kss lapidly 

than otho- occupations? 

Tr,:„'.- because ii required less skilled la'r - ..■. i 
be -- the hener educated and more an: ::::us 
people f V : .ore profitable and congenial employ- 
ment in oiher and less sla\~ish occupations such as 
law, medicine, The:':gy, art, literature and com- 
merce, 

:55 Hnve agriciiltiiral conditions changed in re> 
cent years? 

Within the last cenniiy- ;- ' r-- frially the last 
half centniy. farm business :: . - .-.ve undergone 

many and radical changes. The old time farmer 
was truly a "Jack-of-all-trades." He was his own 

carpenter, blac"':- — "-'- tanner s" ' -'- emaker. while 
his "wife and ^ .ers manr rd the famih" 

clothing- from law material grown upon the farm. 

s 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



83 



289. What are some of the most important changes 
that have taken place? 

Along with every other kind of business, the last 
few years have developed a decided specialization in 
farm labor, farm crops and farm methods. The mod- 
ern farm has largely entered into the commercial 
life of the day, and recognized the advantages of 
division of labor and concentration of effort. 




Filling the seed box preparatory to drilling wheat. 



290. How do these changes affect agriculture? 

Under this change farming becomes a business as 
well as an employment. It means the adoption of 
business methods in every department of the farm ; 
the nice adjustment of capital, lands, tools, machin- 
ery, teams and equipment to each other; and a care- 
ful adjustment of the crops grown to the soil, 
climate and market to be supplied; keeping in mind 



84 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

always the system of rotation to be practiced, and 
the class of labor available. 

291. What are the most important causes of the 

changed conditions? 

Undoubtedly the most important cause is the 
world movement in the direction of applied science, 
which is manifesting itself so strongly in every de- 
partment of human endeavor. Agriculture was 
slow to feel its influence, but the advancement has 
been very rapid the last fifty years. In our own 
country the national and state departments of agri- 
culture, agricultural colleges and experiment sta- 
tions, farmers' institutes, the grange and a multi- 
tude of voluntary societies and associations have all 
added greatly to the general advancement.\ 

CAPITAL 

292. How many kinds of capital does a farmer use? 

Two. Fixed or invested capital, as lands, build- 
ings and equipment ; and circulating or working 
capital — ready money for current expenses. 

293. How should these different kinds of capital 

be adjusted to each other? 

It is impossible to determine without knowing the 
conditions and kind of farming to be engaged in. 
The amount of land, buildings, teams, tools and 
labor should be so nicely adjusted to each other 
that one factor will not be insufficient for the great- 
est possible production and efficiency. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 85 

294. What is the effect of an intensive system upon 

the capital used? 

Just as an intensive system of agriculture is sub- 
stituted for a more extensive system, land improve- 
ment increases; better buildings are erected; silos, 
improved fixtures, and conveniences increase ; bet- 
ter teams, better live stock and better equipment are 
manifest; more labor is employed and more money 
used in the business. 

295. What effect has increasing population upon 

the capital invested in farming? 

As the population increases the price of land goes 
up and the cost of production is increased. The 
quantity of land does not increase or decrease, and 
as the price of land goes up, better farming must 
Inevitably be done upon it in order to pay dividends, 
interest and taxes. The increase in the price of the 
land benefits no one but the man who bought it at 
a lower price. As the population increases, while 
the acreage does riot, each acre must be made to 
produce more in order to feed the people. 

296. What proportion of the amount invested in 

land should be available for other purposes ? 

This will depend upon several factors, but as 
a general proposition not less than twenty-five per 
cent of the amount Invested In the land should be 
available as working capital. 

297. What are the most common financial mistakes 

of farmers ? 
Too much money invested in non-productive 
equipment ; more costly residence and expensive 



86 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

barns and other buildings than necessary; general 
failure to adjust investment to productiveness and 
efficiency. This is the cold-blooded side of it, but 
where the farmer has a surplus income he should 
delight to spend a reasonable part of it in improv- 
ing and beautifying his home and farm. 

LABOR 

298. How much labor should be employed? 

The size of the farm and the character of farm- 
ing engaged in will largely determine how much 
labor may be profitably employed. Labor poorly 
or unprofitably employed is worse than inefficient 
labor. Much will depend upon the farmer himself 
and his skill in handling men and keeping them em- 
ployed. 

299. ' Why should farm labor be regularly em- 

ployed? 

The farm work should be so adjusted by rotation 
and diversified crops as to keep men profitably em- 
ployed throughout the year. 

300. How should farm labor be engaged? 

All things considered, the regular hands should 
be hired by the year on the basis of so much per 
day. Instead of paying an average wage throughout 
the year it is better and safer to divide the year into 
three or four periods. If $1 a day is the average 
price agreed upon, better divide the year into three 
equal sections, and pay 75 cents, $1, and $1.25 ; pay- 
ing least in the short winter months and the most 
when work is most urgent and there is most de- 
mand for men on the farms. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 87 

301. What is the chief advantage of this system? 
In the winter when farm hands are not generally 

wanted they will stay contented at the lower price, 
while in the busy season, when farm labor is in de- 
mand and wages up, the man finds his wages so 
little below the current price paid that he stays con- 
tented where he is. 

302. Which are most desirable, married or un- 

married men? 

For many reasons married men are to be preferred 
for regular farm labor. They are more to be de- 
pended upon, and much more likely to be efficient 
and contented. 

303. What should be furnished farm laborers? 

In addition to paying them regularly the wages 
agreed upon, if the man is married he should be 
furnished a comfortable, convenient house and a 
good garden, with permission to keep some chick- 
ens, a pig or two, and a cow. 

304. What additional labor is necessary? 

In addition to the one or more regular men em- 
ployed who live on the place, it may be necessary 
at certain times and seasons to employ transient 
help. At such times there is no escape from util- 
izing such men as may be available, and less skill- 
ful men may then be utilized. 

305. How may farm labor be kept profitably em- 

ployed? 

There is nothing that requires more forethought 
on the part of a farmer than to provide profitable 
employment for his farm hands every day in the 



8S 



A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 



year, at all seasons and in all kinds of weather. This 
may be done by providing, as far as possible, work 
that may be done in the barns and buildings during 
inclement weather. 

306. How should farm laborers be treated? 

Farm laborers should, at all times, be treated with 
the greatest consideration and fairness. Abusive 




A lot of high-class Champion Yellow Dent corn. 



language should be scrupulously avoided and out- 
breaks of anger suppressed as far as possible. 
Courteous, careful instruction should be given, and 
appreciation of work well done always manifested. 
Every effort should be made to secure the con- 
fidence and cheerful co-operation of hired men. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 89 

Ability to keep them cheerful and contented is a 
valuable asset. A man should never be discharged 
in a fit of anger. If he proves unprofitable, ineffi- 
cient or undesirable, quietly notify him that you do 
not need him any longer, and pay him off. It may 
be necessary to have him again some time. 

IMPLEMENTS AND EQUIPMENT 

307. What implements are necessary on a farm? 

This question needs to be carefully studied by 
the farmer, and only such implements purchased 
as can be made to pay -interest on the investment, 
cost of maintenance, of storage and wqslv and tear 
of the implement. 

308. What class of implements should be pur- 

chased? 

None but those best adapted to the work to be 
done under the conditions where they are to be used. 
Careful consideration should be given the power 
available and the size of the implement to be 
selected, which should be governed by the size of 
the farm and the amount of work to be done. A 
farmer with five acres of wheat to cut annually 
should not buy a binder; better hire one or cut it 
by hand. 

309. What allowance should be made for deprecia- 

tion of machinery? 
Depreciation is a charge from which it is impos- 
sible to escape, though it may be very largely con- 
trolled by the care given farm machinery, and the 
kind of machinery used will have much to do with 



QO A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

it; but a fair average is ten per cent each year, to 
allow for depreciation on all farm equipment. The 
less complicated the machine, the less will be the 
depreciation. 

310. How should farm machinery be cared for? 

Every farm tool, implement or piece of machinery 
should be kept under shelter when not in use, and 
thoroughly painted once a year, both for the appear- 
ance and for the preservation of the implement. 
This painting can be done any odd time when the 
implement is not in use. Nothing gives surer evi- 
dence of thrift than the care given farm implements 
and equipment, including the barns and outbuild- 
ings. 

CHOICE OF A FARM 

311. What factors should determine the choice of 

a farm? 

Much depends upon a wise choice of the farm. 
Location and character of the land are of first 
importance. 

312. What are the controlling factors in location? 

Surroundings generally, mail facilities, railway 
and trolley facilities, churches, schools, telephones, 
kind of neighbors, social opportunities, roads, mar- 
kets and any other things that may add to or sub- 
tract from the locality as a desirable home for self 
and family. 

313. What should be the character of the land? 

Of first importance is the nature of the land, de- 
pending upon the character of farming engaged in. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



91 



The fertility or productive power of the land should 
be certainly ascertained. It is usually cheaper to 
purchase fertility in the land than in a fertilizer 
sack. The contour of the land should receive care- 
ful consideration — steepness, roughness, stoniness, 
dryness, wetness, etc. The proportion of waste land, 
buildings, water supply, woodland, orchards, fences 
and attractiveness of surroundings should be duly 
considered. 




Green unbleached asparagus buncned for market. 

SYSTEMS OF FARMING 

314. What should determine the system of farm- 
ing? 

The system of farming should depend upon many 
things — personal likes and dislikes ; adaptation of 
the land and climate; plan of rotation desired; mar- 
kets to be supplied and labor to be employed. 



92 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

315. What is special farming? 

Special farming is the growing of a single crop or 
at most the growing of one main crop with one or 
two minor crops. 

316. What is mixed farming? 

As distinct from special farming, mixed farming 
is the growing of several crops of approximately 
equal importance, and usually includes the keeping 
of one or more kinds of live stock. It is sometimes 
called general farming. 

317. What are the advantages of mixed farming? 

Fertility more easily maintained : more sources 
of income ; reduced risk of entire failure : better dis- 
tribution of labor as well as diversity of interest. 

FARM ACCOUNTS 

318. Why should farmers keep accounts? 

As a class of business men, farmers are probably 
less careful in keeping accurate account of their 
business than any other. In fact, accurate book- 
keeping is of as much importance to a farmer as it 
is to any other business man. 

319. What are the reasons for keeping farm ac- 

counts? 

To avoid disputes, misunderstandings and loss ; 
so that the farmer may know his business, and have 
the satisfaction and assistance such a record gives 
in conducting the business of the farm. 



far:).:/ management 



93 



320. What system oi bookkeeping should be 
adopted? 

No particular system is necessary. The simplest 
method that can be adopted that will secure the 
desired result is best. Some knowledge of the gen- 
eral principles of bookkeeping is important. 



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321. What should the bookkeeping show? 

It should show the amount of gain or loss in the 
business ; where the gain or loss occurs ; furnish a 
record of transactions ; and guard against mistakes. 

322. What is a single entry system? 

It is a system where but one entry is made of the 
transaction. If John Doe buys a calf and does not 
pay for it, the amount is charged to his account. 



94 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

If he pays for it, the amount is charged to the cash 
account. If the farmer buys a calf from John Doe 
and does not pay for it, he should credit John Doe 
with the amount, and if he does pay for it, the cash 
account should be credited with the amount. 

323. What is double entry? 

In double-entry bookkeeping, every entry is made 
in two accounts. In the case of John Doe above, his 
account would have been debited with $10 if he did 
not pay for the calf, and the account with live stock 
credited with the same amount. Later when John 
Doe paid the $10, his account would have been cred- 
ited and the cash account debited with the amount. 

324. What is an inventory? 

An inventory is a list of all the property on hand 
at the beginning of the year, with a fair valuation 
attached to each item. In order to ascertain the 
gain or loss, it is necessary to take an inventory at 
the end of each year. Great care should be taken 
in fixing the inventory valuation. Due considera- 
tion should be given to any increase or depreciation 
in the value of each piece of property listed. 

325. What kind of accounts should be kept? 

Accounts should be kept with cash and persons, 
and separate accounts should be kept with live 
stock, dairy, poultry, orchard, garden and each field 
crop grown on the place, the number of accounts 
being determined by the extent and character of the 
business. All these accounts may be made as simple 
as possible, or developed into as elaborate a system 
as mav be desired. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 95 

326. How should a farmer begin keeping accounts? 

Begin as simply as possible and elaborate the sys- 
tem with practice and experience. Begin with the 
most important things, and extend the system grad- 
ually to include the less important. 

327. What is the most important thing a farmer 

can do? 

The most important thing a farmer can do may 
be summed up in two words — keep books. 

328. How does education pay the farmer? 

First — By increasing his earning power. The mind 
is master of the body; and the mind developed by 
education is better able to direct the body than the 
mind not so developed. The educated man knows 
his job, and does his work right the first time. 

Second — By increasing his ability to choose and plan 
and direct. The leaders in agriculture are men of 
education. It must be so, because choosing, plan- 
ning, and directing require thinking power. The 
educated man has been trained to think. He sees 
into his problem quickly, and solves it surely. 

Third — By giving Jiim the power and the place of 
leadership. In a government like ours, leadership 
is needed in the country as well as in the city. The 
man who knows has the equipment of the leader. 
For knowledge is power; training is power to use 
the forces that make for progress. The educated 
man knows men, and is acceoted as their leader. 

Fourth — By developing his character. The edu- 



96 A CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURE 

cated man is more of a man than the uneducated 
man, who was his equal. He sees more, appreciates 
more, knows more, and in every worthy way stands 
for more and becomes greater. He radiates power. 
His developed personality draws men to him and 
makes them wish and strive to be like him. 



STANDARD BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

NEW YORK CHICAGO 

Ashland Building People's Gas Building 

315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue 



An\) of these books Tpill be sent by mail, postpaid, to 
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First Principles of Soil Fertility 

By Alfred Vivian. There is no subject of more vital 
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The Study of Corn 

By Prof. V. M. Shoesmith. A most helpful book to all 
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(1) 



Profitable Stock Raising 

By Clarence A. Shamel. This b jok covers fully the 
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The Business of Dairying 

By C. B. Lane. The author of this practical little book 
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Questions and Answers on Buttermaking 

By Chas a. Publow. This book is entirely different 
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Questions and Answers on Milk and Milk Testing 

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(3) 



Soils 

By Charles William Burkett, Director Kansas Agri- 
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Weeds of the Farm Garden 

By L. H. Pammel. The enormous losses, amounting 
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Farm Machinery and Farm Motors 

By J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase. Farm Machinery 
and Farm Motors is the first American book published 
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The Book of Wheat 

By P. T. DoNDLiNGER. This book comprises a complete 
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(4) 



The Cereals in America 

By Thomas F. Hunt, M.S., D.Agri., Professor of Agron- 
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The Forage and Fiber Crops in America 

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The Book of Alfalfa 

History, Cultivation and Merits. Its Uses as a Forage 
and Fertilizer. The appearance of the Hon. F. D. Coburn's 
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Clean Milk 

By S. D. Belcher, M.D. In this book the author sets forth 
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(5) 



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